Europe in Transition

Was written by Martin Luther that the Church should not sell indulgences. 95 Theses. The 95 Theses is a list of arguments by Martin Luther challenging the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

A leading Christian church in England founded by Henry VIII. Anglican Church. The Anglican Church, also known as the Church of England, was created when King Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church in the 16th century.

A church that contains the cathedra of a bishop. Cathedral. In history, a cathedral is a large and important church that serves as the principal church of a diocese, where the bishop's official seat or throne is located.

The King of the Franks and the Lombards, and Emperor of the Romans. Charlemagne. Charlemagne was a medieval ruler who united much of Western Europe and is often called the "Father of Europe."

A varying code of conduct associated with the Christian institution of knighthood. Chivalry was a medieval ethical code that emphasized bravery, courtesy, and honor among knights.

A poet and author at the court of King Charles VI of France, Christine de Pizan. Christine de Pizan was a pioneering female writer who challenged stereotypes and advocated for women's rights during the late Middle Ages.

A series of wars over religious views between the Christian and Muslim populations. Crusades. The Crusades were medieval military expeditions made by Europeans to recover the Holy Land from Muslim control.

Queen of France and England and one of the most powerful women in Western Europe. Eleanor of Aquitaine was a medieval ruler who significantly influenced politics and culture.

The Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 until her death in 1603, Elizabeth I. Elizabeth I was a powerful and influential monarch known for strengthening England and defeating the Spanish Armada.

A system of holding of land in exchange for service or labor. Feudalism. Feudalism is a medieval European system where nobles offered protection and land to vassals in return for military service and labor.

A property or right that an overlord gave a vassal in exchange for military service. Fief. In medieval times, a fief was land given to a nobleman in return for loyalty and military support.

A long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier. Fjord. In ancient times, fjords were used by Vikings as sheltered routes for travel and trade.

A style of medieval art that developed in Northern France out of Romanesque art. Gothic style. Gothic style is characterized by its soaring cathedrals with pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained-glass windows.

The King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry VIII. Henry VIII is famous for having six wives and breaking away from the Catholic Church to form the Church of England.

A German abbess, one of the best-known composers of sacred monophony, Hildegard of Bingen. Hildegard of Bingen was a medieval nun who made significant contributions to music, writing, and science.

A philosophical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings. Humanism. In history, humanism is a movement that emerged during the Renaissance, focusing on human potential and achievements.

A Spanish Catholic priest, theologian and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. Ignatius of Loyola. Ignatius of Loyola was a key figure in the Counter-Reformation, founding the Jesuits to reform the Church and spread Catholicism.

A temporal punishment for sins which have already been forgiven is taken from the sinner. Indulgence. In history, an indulgence was a grant by the Catholic Church that reduced time in purgatory for sins after confession.

A German inventor, printer, and publisher who invented the printing press, Johann Gutenberg. He revolutionized the way books were made, making them more accessible and fostering the spread of knowledge.

The King of England 1199 - 1216, significant for the sealing of Magna Carta. King John. King John was a medieval English king known for signing the Magna Carta, which limited the power of the monarchy.

A pope and ruler of the Papal States 1513 - 1521. Leo X was a Renaissance Pope known for his lavish spending and support of the arts, contributing to the cultural richness of the period.

An Italian polymath, scientist, inventor, painter, architect, and paleontologist. Leonardo was a genius of the Renaissance who created famous artworks and advanced various fields of study.

De facto ruler of the Florentine Republic and patron of Renaissance culture, Lorenzo Medici. Lorenzo Medici was a powerful leader in Florence who supported artists and helped the Renaissance flourish.

A charter of rights agreed to by King John of England. Magna Carta. It is a historical document that limited the king's power and laid the foundation for modern legal systems.

An estate in land which includes the right to hold a manorial court. manor. A manor was a large estate in medieval Europe, comprising the lord's residence, farmland, and villages, governed by manorial courts.

A French theologian, pastor and reformer, a developer of Calvinism. Martin Luther. Martin Luther was a German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church's practices.

An Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet. Michelangelo. He was a Renaissance artist known for masterpieces like the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

In the history of Europe, period that lasted from the 5th to the late 15th century. Middle Ages. The Middle Ages was a time in Europe between ancient and modern times characterized by feudalism, castles, and knights.

A Spanish writer best known for his novel Don Quixote. Miguel de Cervantes was a major figure in Spanish literature during the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

A place where monks or nuns live and work. monastery. In history, a monastery is a religious community where people dedicate their lives to worship and work.

A body of water that is deep, wide and calm enough for a water vessel to pass safely. Navigable. In history, "navigable" refers to waterways that were essential for transportation and trade because they allowed ships to travel safely.

An Italian diplomat, philosopher and writer, best known for Il Principe. Niccolo Machiavelli. He is often considered the father of modern political science for his pragmatic and sometimes ruthless advice on leadership and power.

A woman who made a special vow dedicating herself to a religious life. Nun. In history, a nun is a woman who lives in a convent and devotes her life to religious service and prayer.

A person or organization that supports another. Patron. In History, a patron often funded artists or scholars, enabling them to focus on their work.

A formation of an image in a picture viewed from a fixed point perspective. In history, perspective is a method used in art to create the illusion of depth and space on a flat surface, originating in the Renaissance period.

An Italian scholar and poet, one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism," as he helped initiate the Renaissance.

An infectious disease spread by flea bites or handling an infected animal. Plague. Historically, the plague, especially the Black Death, devastated Europe in the 14th century, killing millions.

The bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States 1088 - 1099. Pope Urban II. He is known for initiating the First Crusade in 1095, which aimed to reclaim Jerusalem for Christianity.

Theologians whose works and actions brought about the Protestant Reformation. Protestant. Protestant refers to a branch of Christianity that originated in the 16th century as a movement against certain practices of the Catholic Church.

A Christian gradual military retaking of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. Reconquista. The Reconquista was the series of campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory from the Muslims in medieval Spain and Portugal.

The 16th century schism within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther. Reformation. The Reformation was a movement that aimed to reform the practices of the Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestant churches.

A period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity. Renaissance. It was a time of renewed interest in art, science, and the ideas of ancient Greece and Rome.

People who are believed to be holy. Saint. In history, a saint is a person recognized for their exceptional holiness and virtue, often canonized by the Church.

A worker who has to stay in a lord's area. Serf. In history, a serf was a farmer or laborer who was bound to work on a noble's land and could not leave without permission.

An English poet, playwright and actor, one of the world's greatest dramatists. Shakespeare was a famous writer from the 16th century who created many well-known plays and stories.

A person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch. Vassal. In medieval times, a vassal was someone who received land and protection from a lord in exchange for loyalty and service.

The first Norman King of England 1066 - 1087. William the Conqueror. William the Conqueror was the leader who invaded England in 1066 and established Norman rule.